Authors
– Ajai R Singh MD*
– Shakuntala A. Singh Ph.D**
*Psychiatrist. Editor, Mens Sana Monographs
** Philosopher. Retired Principal and Head, Dept. of Philosophy, Joshi-Bedekar College, Thane, Maharashtra, India. Deputy Editor, Mens Sana Monographs
Submitted 4th July 2024. Accepted 9th Agust 2024
Peer Reviewer : Anon
Abstract
This essay covers the first 16 sutras of Sage Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras from the Mental Health point of view. Concepts like Vritti, Citta, Abhyasa, Vairagya and their basis in the definition of Yoga as citta vritti nirodhah are delineated with illustrative examples that clarify them for mental health workers and researchers who may not have knowledge of Sanskrit.
The concepts described herein need to be submitted to rigorous experimental scrutiny. Also, their neurobiological correlates need to be discovered and validated to make them relevant for future scientific study.
General Introduction
Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (hereafter PYS) are attributed to Sage Patanjali. (Sage or Rishi means a learned or enlightened person.)
Sage Patanjali is often called the father of Yoga. This is incorrect. Yoga, as a discipline, existed much before him. He was, however, responsible for condensing Yoga in the form of sutras or aphorisms – short, pithy statements that distilled the knowledge of Yoga that came down from ancient times.
So, Sage Patanjali is not the father but the systamatizer of yoga. The sutrakar of Yoga.
Since the sutras are very short, it is often necessary to read them with a commentary that interprets and makes sense of often enigmatic appearing sutras. Sage Vyasa is supposed to be the first in that lineage, followed by Sri Adi Shankaracharya down to Swami Vivekananda in more recent times. (There are disputes among scholars about who were Vyasa and Shankara, but that need not detain us here.). Even Sri B. K. S. Iyengar and Sri Sri Ravi Shanker have written commentaries in more recent times.
In the Indian philosophical tradition came a phase called the Sutra Period. During this phase, numerous sages and intellectual giants put forth the knowledge from their respective disciplines in short, condensed aphorisms called sutras. For example, in the field of Nyaya, Sage Gautama wrote Nyayasutras- the treatise of Nyaya.
Sage Patanjali did this in the case of Yoga.
Moreover, there are various forms of Yoga e.g. Buddhist Yoga, Jaina Yoga etc. Also, the title of every Chapter of the Bhagvad Geeta, for example, ends with the word Yoga. All these are important works. Comment on them is outside the scope of this essay.
Similarly, there maybe (and there are) common factors between the different forms of Yoga and that is a fascinating topic of discussion too. But that, again, is not the scope of this essay.
PYS belong to the Astika Tradition of the Vedas. Their metaphysical base is Samkhya.
They are divided into four Chapters –
- Samadhi-padah (the chapter on understanding of what is samadhi i.e. equanimity). 51 Sutras.
- Sadhana-padah (the chapter on the disciplined effort needed to achieve samadhi). 55 Sutras.
- Vibhuti-padah (the chapter on the phase of attaining, and abandoning, the powers that arise from the sadhana in Part Two.). 56 Sutras
- Kaivalya-padah (the final stage wherein one proceeds even beyond samadhi to the stage of Kaivalya or the sublime stage of unitariness i.e. realisation of one’s essential nature as Purusha, bereft of all
layerings or attributes.). 34 Sutras.
Totally, 196 sutras in all. (according to some, 195).
All steps in the process of Yogic Sadhana are meant to finally lead to the goal of Kaivalya.
Although we can talk of PYS as four chapters, they are so short that they would hardly occupy two full pages.
Each sutra needs a full length commentary to be able to grasp its meaning and its scope.
And yet, concentrating on the sutras themselves by going to the primary source is equally important and enlightening. This is what we shall do here.
The attempt will be to find psychological and psychopathological correlates of the first 16 of these sutras.
They deal with the definition of Yoga, the concept of Vritties and the means of their control.
This actually is what is Yoga, according to Sage Patanjali. The rest are elaborations and successive stages in the process of reaching samadhi and kaivalya. Even Asana, which is what is ordinarily associated with Yoga, finds mention in just one Sutra of PYS. That it occupies centre stage today is understandable, because the human tendency is to seek fixes to problems of living and health, not necessarily seek
elaborate knowledge of how this happens. For those who think otherwise, understanding the first 16 sutras can be fascinating. We shall see that they also offer practical steps in achieving health in general and mental health in particular.
This attempt can, therefore , be considered a commentary, a bhashya, on the first 16 sutras of PYS from the Mental Health Perspective.
Actionable Models in Holistic Mental Health
There are many steps in the process outlined in the four Chapters of PYS, which, by themselves, can be useful as practical, actionable models for anyone interested in holistic Mental Health. For example, kleshas, antarayas, ashtanga yoga, forms of samadhi, kundalini, chakras, samyama, state of kaivalya etc. They will be the focus of future work .
If we consider the WHO definition of health as
‘a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being and not just the absence of disease or infirmity’,
treatises like PYS become important adjuncts towards that goal.
This is an attempt in that direction.
The Scope and Outine of the Present Study
The 16 sutras we tackle deal with
- The definition of Yoga as citta vritti nirodhah;
- The 5 types of vritties called Pramana, Viparyaya, Vikalpa, Nidra and Smriti, and the way they influence citta; and
- The manner one can gain control over the psychopathological aspects of Vritties. The method of gaining this control is through Abhyasa and Vairagya.
These terms may appear daunting at first. However, as we proceed further and see how they apply to Mental Health, they will get clarified and start making lot of sense. Illustrative examples will help in further understanding.
How Can These 16 Sutras be classified?
Sutras 1-4 deal with what is Yoga, Sutras 5-11 with what are vritties or cyclical tendencies, Sutras 12-16 with means of their control.
The definition, its elaboration and its solution make a complete set for our limited purpose here
Starting At The Beginning
The First Sutra
The very first sutra of PYS says
अथ योगानुशासनम्॥ १॥
atha yogānuśāsanam||1||
PYS 1.1
Which means
And now (atha), the self-discipline (anushashan) called Yoga.
It’s important to note that the first sutra begins with Atha meaning ‘And now’.
Why should it be so?
It indicates there is something that has gone/happened before it.
What is that?
It is one, or both, of the following
1. Understanding of Sankhyan metaphysics, which is the foundation of this branch.
2. Equally importantly, it means – now that you have experienced the different trials and tribulations of life and the various types of intellectual acrobatics that life and your intellect have made you perform, settle down to understand what the discipline of Yoga means and offers as a means to well-being and for reaching the highest possible state of development.
It is a gentle admonition of what the individual has done till date. More importantly, it offers a distinct scope of change from the moment one settles down and tries to understand one’s true nature and correct its defects.
Moreover, Yoga is anushashan. Shashana or rule/discipline of the self. It doesn’t advocate a religious belief system, or worshipping a certain diety. It is totally concerned with how an individual can gain control over oneself, get rid of faulty coping mechanisms and march forward to achieve the highest potential. Both of the self, and in getting an understanding of the discipline of Yoga that one has decided to study and adopt.
The call, therefore, is not devotional, but logical and analytic. PYS is a scientific and analytical text. It is also very optimistic of human potentialities. Both these serve the purpose of scientific study admirably.
The Second Sutra
Sage Patanjali comes straight to the point in the very 2nd Sutra by defining what is yoga.
No elaborate introduction, no background creation, no lomg winded explanation, no nothing.
The second sutra defines Yoga as-
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः ॥२॥
yogaścittavṛttinirodhaḥ||2||
PYS 1.2
Which means –
Yoga is control (nirodhah) of the cyclical tendencies (vritties; etymologically, vritta means circle ) of the citta (stuff of which the mind is made; mind stuff).
It is essential to understand this sutra from the mental health point of view.
Our citta is the mind stuff which determines and regulates our thoughts, emotions and behaviour at the most fundamental level. It is like a lake of water with immense depth. However, its surface is constantly in turbulence due the ripples/waves that arise there. These are the vritties – cyclical patterns of thought and behaviour that keep the water stirred and turbulent. Not allowing viewing of its deeper, pure inner self.
The whole key is, therefore, to achieve control over these vritties which arise like a vortex, a whirlpool, in circles again and again, not allowing us to get to peer into our inner self and achieve our true potential.
Nirodhah as Control, Not Suppression
The idea is to gain control – not to suppress or totally abandon, but gain control. (In fact, the whole emphasis in PYS is on achieving control.). Like a filter, a semi-permeable membrane that selectively helps sieve what to allow to percolate and what not.
Nirodhah is, therefore, not total but selective blocking. Or filtering. To give another example, it is more like a door than a wall. A door helps one decide who to allow entry. A wall just blocks entry irrespective of who is involved.
Of course, as one advances further to deeper stages of samadhi, the door becomes more and more selective. Towards the ultimate stage of samadhi and on reaching kaivalya, the door becomes one with the wall. Here, all outward tendencies are blocked and one lives only in one’s true unitary consciousness as purusha.
This elaboration is just to clarify what the ultimate goal is. For our limited purpose from the mental health point of view, and to develop actionable models, nirodhah as control and selective filtering is appropriate. Not complete, but appropriate for a specific purpose.
Why?
In preparing for the SSC exam, one doesn’t study the BSc textbook. But, of course, one knows one will need to study that too, but when one reaches there. And only then.
This elaboration is just to set the record straight and is not immediately relevant to our limited, but important, purpose.
To Put in a Nutshell
Understanding and controlling the effect on the citta of the cyclical tendencies called vritties is what is Yoga, according to PYS.
Plain, simple and direct.
A further point. We must not conclude that all vritties are maladaptive. Each one of them can have adaptive and maladaptive forms. We will see how that is so in each of them as we proceed further.
Some examples of how vritties are compulsive and cyclical will help here.
Understanding the Nature of Vritties
Let us take some examples to clarify vritties for us.
Case Vignettes 1
Ms B came with symptoms of headaches, gastric eructations, abdominal bloating, frequent loose motions etc. She was diagnosed with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).
On taking detailed history, it was found Ms B was incharge of her office. She blew her top every time she saw her office staff wasting time chit chatting during working hours. Her repeated warnings had no effect. They kept repeating the same mistakes.
So did she.
Mr A came with symptoms of frequent angry outbursts, shortness of breath, headaches and difficulty falling asleep.On going into details, it was found that Mr A saw his children spending long hours before the TV screen. He responded with anger every time he saw it. They shut it in his presence, but waited for him to leave, so they could do what they wanted.He kept either ranting or fuming. They kept either revolting or shunning.
Above are two common patterns of compulsive, cyclical tendencies that grip people in day to day life.These are examples of vritties that control the citta.Yoga means to achieve the exact opposite. Rather than vritties control citta, it’s citta that must control vritties.So what do we do?Ms B and Mr A decide to apply control over their pathological responses.They decide repeated anger, sulking, firing, blowing the top were faulty coping mechanisms and needed to be filtered out.The much better option was to sit down and arrive at a consensus as to what was permissible and what not.This was possible only when the cyclical patterns of behaviour were first recognised, then controlled, and finally eliminated. And replaced by the better coping mechanisms of mutually agreed limit-setting.This is the goal in therapy.This is also chitta vritti nirodhah in action.This is Psychotherapy.This is also Yoga.
Case Vignette 2
Ms P is a pretty, successful and independent minded individual, but repeatedly unsuccessful in her romantic relationships.
She starts each one of them with great gusto and the partner also responds appropriately. Somewhere down the line, she starts becoming possessive of her partner. She wants him to prove his love for her all the time. Any discrepancy in his behaviour is met with suspicion. She starts blaming him for neglecting her, not responding to her love with the intensity she expects. She starts checking his movements, his cell phone, eavesdropping on his conversations. Every female companion, howsoever benign, becomes suspect.
He reasons with her but she is adamant. They enter into frequent brawls because of this.
Ultimately, the man is fed up and wants to move away.
That becomes proof for her that he, indeed, didn’t love her in the first place.
This pattern repeats itself every time. In every relationship.
As she enters therapy, she is helped to come to the realisation of her cyclical tendencies – beginning
with ardour and then proceeding to possessiveness-obsessive expectation-suspicion-names calling and
shaming.
Rather than fixing the blame on her partner, she realises it’s her own cyclical pattern of behaviour (vritti)
that’s hurting her.
She is helped to develop control (nirodhah) over these cyclical tendencies .
This is psychotherapy in action.
This also is citta vritti nirodhah in action.
And also Yoga in action.
We can see the goals of mental health and yoga coalesce so beautifully.
The Next Sutra
The Third Sutra
(svarupe) . The relevant Sutra says
तदा द्रष्टुः स्वरुपेऽवस्थानम् ॥३॥
tadā draṣṭuḥ svarūpe’vasthānam||3||
PYS 1.3
The Fourth Sutra
वृत्तिसारुप्यमितरत्र॥४॥
vṛttisārūpyamitaratra||4||
In other words, if one doesn’t control the effect of vritties on the citta, the citta becomes identified with these vritties. Which means, we start identifying ourselves not with our true nature, but with our tendencies or vritties. We are compelled to act in cyclically maladaptive ways.
Case Vignette 3
It will, therefore, be interesting to study what are these vritties, their types, and how do they influence the citta, both adaptively and maladaptively.
Vritties and Their Types
The Fifth Sutra
वृत्तयः पञ्चतय्यः क्लिष्टाक्लिष्टाः ॥५॥
vṛttayaḥ pañcatayyaḥ kliṣṭākliṣṭāḥ||5||
(Meaning, vritties are of five kinds, some difficult/ hurtful and some simple/benign.)
Let’s note that vritties are not necessarily pathological, although when pathological they are most
hurtful.
The Sixth Sutra
knowledge/judgement ), Vikalpa (imagination or imaginary knowledge), Nidra (sleep) and Smriti
(memory).
प्रमाणविपर्ययविकल्पनिद्रास्मृतयः ॥६॥
pramāṇaviparyayavikalpanidrāsmṛtayaḥ||6|
imagination/imaginary knowledge , sleep and memory (are the five types of vritties.)
1. The Vritti of Pramana (The Cyclical Tendency of Right/Valid Knowledge)
The Seventh Sutra
(anumana) and authoritative sources (aganah).
प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमाः प्रमाणानि॥७॥
pratyakṣānumānāgamāḥ pramāṇāni||7||
(Meaning – direct experience, inference and authoritative sources are the three ways of gaining
right/valid knowledge).
wake up in the morning and see that the ground is wet, we conclude it must have rained in the
night. We did not see the rain, yet our knowledge remains valid. This is inference or anamana.
When we want to verify the meaning of a word, we look up a dictionary. That is a trusted source, or Agama.
occur in a cyclical manner, they becone the vritti called Pramana.
Illustrative Examples of the Vritti of Pramana
Example 1
investment opportunity (direct experience, pratyaksha). He also makes conclusions based on trends that prevail (inference or anumana). He verifies the credentials of a company only through trusted sources before taking a financial stake in any (authoritative knowledge or agamah).
Example 2
Dr G is following all three sources of gaining valid knowledge. He is following Pramana .
He does this every time. This becomes the vritti of Pramana.
Example 3
Exanple 4
Dr F only listens to relatives’ description and decides on treatment without seeing or listening to the patient. This is lack of direct experience or lack of pratyaksha. He gets unduly alarmed at minor symptoms and orders a battery of costly investigations. This is lack of valid inference or valid anumana. He doesn’t update his knowledge and prescribes outdated medicines that later research found less effective or had serious side effects.
Dr F doesn’t follow what is described in authoritative recent textbooks or journals as sources or Agamas.
Dr F cannot be said to be following valid knowledge or Pramana.
If he does this in a cyclical manner, this beomes a vritti which is behaviour not based on Pramana. It will go as an example of viparyaya or invalid knowledge, second type of vritti which follows below.
It is obvious from the above that Pramana as valid knowledge is a useful vritti to have.
Ofcourse there are various nuances and subtleties involved here. What may appear as valid knowledge may actually be invalid knowledge in the garb of right knowledge. The whole branch of medical ethics is directed towards addressing precisely such potential problems. But that is a topic by itself and outside our scope here.
Example of an Arguably Maladaptive Form of Pramana
Mr Y says he will believe in God only if he actually sees Him. When others try to convince him that you can infer God through His creations and also by trusting the writings in religious scriptures, he says he trusts only pratyaksha in this matter, neither anunana nor Agamas.
From the religious point of view, he can be said to use a valid method of pratyaksha pramana to come to a invalid conclusion. From the atheist or nastika point of view, he may be considered to have valid knowledge.
The Vritti of Viparyaya (The Cyclical Tendency of Wrong/invalid Knowledge)
The Eighth Sutra
Viparyaya (false/invalid knowledge) is the opposite of pramana. It is perception/understanding based on wrong/illusory knowledge (mithyajnanam), that is, not based on what actually is.
Illusion, delusion are relevant examples from the mental health point of view. Attributing motives is again a very common form of viparyaya.
The connected Sutra is –
विपर्ययो मिथ्याज्ञानमतद्रुपप्रतिष्ठम् ॥८॥
viparyayo mithyājñānamatadrūpapratiṣṭham||8||
PYS 1.8
(Meaning – Viparyaya is false/invalid knowledge that is based on mistaking a certain form for
something quite different. .
Illustrative Examples of Viparyaya
Example 1
Mr Q goes by rumours or tips and makes huge investments in the stock market. At times he wins, but mostly he loses. But he continues to follow his whims in a cyclical manner. Then blames the stock market as being a gambling den. A satta bazaar.
Even as he says so, he continues his reckless investments and keeps hoping against hope that the next time he will wipe out all his losses.
This is viparyaya (false understanding) based on illusory knowledge (mithya jnanam) carried out in a cyclical , compulsive manner (a vritti).
Example 2
Mr V has delirium tremens (DT). He has severe tremors, agitation, attacks of terror and sleeplessness. During night and in the dark, he gets attacks of terror wherein he gets illusions and mistakes a rope for a snake and shadows appear like demons lurking in the dark.
This happens every night during his DT.
Also, tingling is mistaken for ants crawling under the skin.
This is an example of mithyajnana or illusory knowledge and since it happens cyclically, it is also an example of the vritti of viparyaya.
Possible Adaptive Use of the Vritti of Viparyaya
Ms R suffers from metastatic tumours and oncologists have given her a survival time of six
months. She also has severe CCF and extensive liver and kidney damage. Her family members
know her extremely anxious nature. She is already on heavy doses of anxiolytics . The relatives
are in a fix how to divulge the news of her metastatic cancer and imminent mortality. They
come to the conclusion that revealing the truth may exacerbate her other related morbidities
due to her anxious nature, and she may give up on living much before the malignancy reaches
the terminal stage. They decide to conceal her metastasis so that whatever time she has left,
she can live in reletively less distress. They falsely reassure her that the tumour is not malignant
and also give her wrong knowledge that there is no metastasis.
Denial can at times serve as an important coping mechanism because it may help keep up the
semblane of normalcy, both in patients and their care givers. Psycho-oncologists will vouch for
this.
There can be serious issues of autonomy and justice raised here from the medical ethics point of
view. But pragmatic considerations may at times over rule other considerations. In fact it may
arguably be an act of beneficence to conceal certain information from the patient in her best
interest.
This is incorrect knowledge that is arguably helpful. It is a useful invalid knowledge or a useful
viparyaya.
If this is done in a cyclical manner by oncologists and care givers for similar cases, it can arguably
be considered the vritti of Viparyaya of the helpful type.
3. Vritti of Vikalpa (The Cyclical Tendency of Imagination )
The Ninth Sutra
Ordinary understanding is the term vikalpa means an alternative. However, PYS define it
technically. Vikalpa is imagination, or imaginary knowledge. More specifically, it is imaginary
verbal knowledge (sabda jnana) in the absence of real objects (vastu shunye).
The relevant Sutra is as follows
शब्दज्ञानानुपाती वस्तुशून्यो विकल्पः॥९॥
sabdajñānānupātī vastuśūnyo vikalpaḥ||9||
PYS 1.9
Hallucination is perception in the absence of a stimulus. Auditory heallucination is hearing
imaginary voices. It is vastu shunye shabda jnana I.e. verbal knowledge in the absence of a real
object (meaning a person saying it). Auditory hallucination is an apt example of vikalpa from the
mental health point of view.
In general, however, if Pranana is right knowledge, Viparyaya is false knowledge and Vikalpa is
imaginary knowledge. Overtly, Vikalpa may appear a part of Viparyaya, since imagination can be
considered a type of false knowledge. However, PYS define it differently with ample justification . Why it is a distinct category of vritti will be apparent when we take illustrative examples.
Illustrative Examples of the Vritti of Vikalpa (Imagination)
Example 1
Mr R believes that his co-workers in office have ganged up against him because he is sincere in his work but doesn’t sit and gossip with them. He suspects they talk ill of him and carry tales to the boss. That is the reason he doesn’t get the promotion he deserves.
He sulks in office and his productivity drops. His boss pulls him up. That becomes further confirmation that his peers have poisoned the boss’ mind.
He repeats this behaviour (vritti) and continues to harbour these beliefs even after a well wisher he otherwise trusts tries to reason it out with him.
This is psychopathological Vikalpa ( knowledge based on imagination). Since it is repeated in a cyclical, almost compulsive manner, it is also a vritti.
Example 2
Mr Q has Paranoid Schizophrenia . He hears imaginary voices that pass a running commentary on his actions and accuse him of being a traitor and a murderer. No amount of reasoning or reassurance by his family members that there is no one actually doing this convinces him. In fact this acts as confirmation for him that even his family members have ganged up against him and may be responsible for encouraging those “persons” to carry on with their voices of accusatory persecution.
This hearing of voices is in the absence of a stimulus and therefore hallucination. It is also sabda jnana (knowledge of words) in the absence of an object (Vastu shunye).
It is, therefore, vikalpa.
Since it occurs cyclically and compulsively, it is also a vritti.
It becomes an example of the vritti of Vikalpa.
This too is psychopathological Vikalpa.
Illustrative Example of Healthy/Physiological Vikalpa (Imagination)
Example 3
Ms V is a poetess. She often shuts herself up and keeps away from interection with people and worldly matters while writing. She creates a world of imagery, ideas and metaphorical symbols only creatively connected with reality.
She goes into such imaginative sprees whenever she gets the creative urge.
This, too, is an imaginary world of words not directly commected with reality. Vastu shunye sabda
jnana.
It is viparyaya , but of the physiological/useful variety.
Since she does it cyclically, it is also the vritti of vikalpa.
Remember, PYS say vritties are both hurtful/ pathological and benign. (PYS 1. 55)
4. Vritti of Nidra (The Cyclical Tendency of Sleep)
The Tenth Sutra
Sleep (specially deep sleep) is grounded or resting (alambana) in the perception (pratyaya) of nonexistence (abhava).
In other words, the difference between waking and sleep is that in the waking state, we are aware of our existence, while in sleep this awareness is temporarily suspended.
Moreover, this is a cyclical process. If one cannot suspend the awareness of existence i.e. cannot blank out the world around, one cannot sleep. That is the reason one needs darkness, silence and quietened mind to go off to sleep. The absence of one or more of these can negatively affect sleep.
The relevant sutra is –
अभावप्रत्ययालम्बना वृत्तिर्निद्रा॥१०॥
abhāvapratyayālambanā vṛttirnidrā||10||
PYS 1.10
Meaning – the vritti called sleep is grounded in the perception of (temporary) non-existence.
Illustrative Examples of Sleep (Nidra) as a Vritti
Example 1
Ms R starts winding down one hour before she plans to sleep. She does some prayer and listens to soft meditative music to calm her before sleep. She avoids heated discussions before or during bed time. She spends a few calm moments with family members before sleep. She never uses the bed as a means to discuss vexing issues with her spouse.
She does this regularly.
She uses the vritti of nidra to good effect.
She wakes up refreshed and ready to take on the challenges of the next day.
This is healthy use of the vritti of nidra.
Example 2
Ms S habitually watches TV till late into the night and therefore sleeps late. They are usually either headed debates or serials of crime or suspense thrillers. She cannot wake up early morning. She somehow rushes to work and is almost always late.
She blames her sleep pattern, saying she just cannot sleep early.
Sleeping late and waking up late had become a cyclical pattern with her.
This is the vritti of nidra (sleep) that is pathological and hurts her progress.
Again, to reiterate, vrittis can be both helpful and harmful. It’s how well the individual manages to
control the harmful effects of vrittis from affecting the citta that is important.
That is Citra vritti nirodhah. That, by definition, is Yoga.
Remember, the example of the semi-permiable membrane that selectively blocks/allows for vrittis to influence citta. Or, the example of a door that similarly allows selective entry.
5. The Vritti of Smriti (The Cyclical Tendency of Memory)
The Eleventh Sutra
Smriti (memory or remembrance) is the retention (asampramoshah) of experienced
objects/phenomena (anubhuta vishaya) without allowing them to pass away.
The relevant sutra is –
अनुभूतविषयासम्प्रमोषः स्मृतिः ॥११॥
anubhūtaviṣayāsampramoṣaḥ smṛtiḥ||11||
PYS 1.11
Memories can be both pleasant and unpleasant. To recollect and treasure them can be both deeply comforting and equally deeply traumatic.
What is characteristic of them is that they are repetitive, often compulsively so. Hence, PYS classify them as vrittis.
Illustrative Examples of the Vritti of Smriti
Example 1
Adaptive Type of Smriti
Ms G remembers her parents with great affection. Even her fights with her siblings now brings a smile on her lips. Her first pregnancy, the severe morning sickness, the repeated visits to the doctor, the premature delivery and the trying times she went through also is now a fond cherished memory.
She remembers all those who met her in her life. She remembers them with gratitude for whatever they did for her, howsoever small. She has forgiven and moved on from the various tragedies that befell her, including a failed marriage and a big financial fraud. She just shrugged them off as a bad dream, learnt her lessons, and moved on without any rancour or regrets. Simply thankful and grateful to life and its teachings, howsoever chastising and painful.
She has adopted this as a habitual pattern all through life.
This is the vritti of smriti of the healthy or physiological type.
Example 2
Maladaptive Type of Smriti
Ms T has a habit of going into past memories of the times she was punished in childhood, the way
teachers ill-treated her, the way boys made passes at her in her teenage, the way numerous men ‘took advantage’ of her and ‘ruined’ her youth.
These memories keep repeating in a cyclical pattern and don’t allow her to esatblish healthy relationship in the present.
She continues to blame her past for her difficulties with inter-personal relationships in the present.
This is pathological form of the vritti of Smriti (memory) which needs to be worked through in therapy.
Looking Further
How are these vritties to be controlled? What does PYS have to offer in this regard?
Abhyasa (Practice) and Vairagya (Non-attachment) as Means of Citta Vritti Nirodhah
The Twelfth Sutra
The way to achieve nirodhah over vrittis is through abhyasa (practice) and vairagya (beyondattachment, i.e. beyond entanglement).
The relevant Sutra says –
अभ्यासवैराग्याभ्यां तन्निरोधः॥१२॥
abhyāsavairāgyābhyāṁ tannirodhaḥ||12||
PYS 1.12
We will see how this works out in practice as we study how are both of them are defined in PYS.
What is Abyasa?
The Thirteenth Sutra
Abhyasa (practice, not just study) is a technical term in PYS. It means putting continuous effort (yatna) to remain in a certain state (sthitau).
The relevant Sutra says
तत्र स्थितौ यत्नोऽभ्यासः॥१३॥
tatra sthitau yatno’bhyāsaḥ||13||
PYS 1.13
Abhyasa is the practice of putting in the effort whereby vritties cannot have their deleterious effect on the citta.
What does this mean?
Continuous effort to remain in a certain state.
Essentially , it means after understanding what are vritties, the sustained effort to prevent their
deleterious effect on the citta.
Abhyasa means sustained effort. That’s its sum and substance.
Also, the effort can be both individual and assisted . Where there is no personal effort, there is no
abhyasa, howsoever great the wish or assisstance. If it’s not continuous, it’s in fits and starts, it cannot be abhyasa as per PYS.
Individual effort may be assisted by experts to guide its direction as well as helps its continuity over a prolonged period.
Here, mental health interventions can play a role.
Let’s apply this to all the five vritties one by one.
There are two ways of looking at this –
- 1 How Abhyasa in general helps in controlling the vritties which then leads to citta vritti
nirodhah; - How controlling each specific vritti works in citta vritti nirodhah.
There are important differences between the two. Abhyasa (sustained effort ) helping in control of
vritties, and vritties being controlled by Abhyasa to help in the process of citta vritti nirodhah.
Let’s see both of these one by one
Abhyasa helping in control of vritties to achieve Citta vritti nirodhah
Sustained practice in controlling invalid knowledge (viparyaya), imaginary knowledge (Vikalpa),
faulty sleep patterns (nidra) and traumatic memories (smriti) helps keep the citta free of vritties and thus achieve citta vritti nirodhah.
It means blocking the deleterious effect of such vritties by continuous effort or abhyasa.
Vritties being made to work in the service of citta vritti nirodhah by abhyasa
Here the vritties are being used by abhyasa to achieve citta vritti nirodhah.
If pramana turns into a maladaptive vritti, sustained effort is needed to control it. For example, the vritti to trust direct experience (pratyaksha) of everything alone as valid, and therefore not believing anyone. Checking and cross checking on people, probing and reprobing, spying on the partner etc. These are its manifestations. Continuous effort, maybe with psychotherapeutic help, maybe needed to control this vritti. Abhyasa is also continuous effort to control the cyclical tendency of allowing wrong knowledge (viparyaya) to influence behaviour. For example, habitually trusting wrong people, misjudging others’ intentions, wrong appraisal of people and situations, etc. Continuous effort, maybe with psychotherapeutic help, maybe needed to correct this vritti.
Abyasa is also continuous effort in controlling the tendency to allow imagination (vikalpa) to vitiate thinking and behaviour. For example, the behaviour of imagining the other to be an enemy. Or imagining an enemy to be a friend. Living in a false state of either hope or despair. Even these vritties may need psychotherapeutic assistance to help in continuous effort to control them.
Abhyasa is also continuous effort to control the cyclical tendency of sleep (nidra). For example, sleeping late, sleeping at odd hours, sleeping at the work place, depriving oneself from legitimate sleep time, not seeking therapy when there is insomnia etc . All these vritties may need personal and assisted effort.
Abyasa is also continuous effort to prevent the deleterious effect of cyclically brooding over, or clinging to the past (smriti), just not allowing it to go. Past hurts, resentments as well as past glories and laurels – all these can be pathological in this context. Coupled with personal effort, here too one may need psychiatric assistance.
What becomes obvious is that all these are psychopathological components of either personality orother psychiatric disorders.
To that extent, psychiatric therapy is a means to assist continuous effort to control these cyclical
tendencies.
It therefore is a valid method of abhyasa, along with the sustained effort that an individual puts in on his own.
The key to abhyasa is continuous effort, assisted or otherwise.
This becomes on of the important means of citta vritti nirodhah.
Abhyasa Continued
How is Abyasa to be done and how does one get firmly established in it, is answered in the next Sutra.
The Fourteenth Sutra
Abhyasa becomes firmly established (dridhabhoomi) when it is carried out for prolonged periods (dirghakale), without breaks (nairantarya) and by carefully cultivated right effort (satkara savetah).
The relevant Sutra is
स तु दीर्घकालनैरन्तर्यसत्कारासेवितो दृढभूमिः॥१४॥
sa tu dīrghakālanairantaryasatkārāsevito dṛḍhabhūmiḥ||14||
PYS 1.14
In other words, Abhyasa is to put in sustained effort over vritti control. No off and on. No blow hot, blow cold. Just keep pegging at it in a sustained manner.
An example will make it clear.
Example of What Abyasa Means and How it Helps in Citta Vritti Nirodhah
1. Example of Incorrect Abhyasa
Mr K had realised that there are certain cyclical patterns in his behaviour which are pathological. For example, he sleeps late because he watches TV till late into the night.
He starts with making strong earnest efforts in the right manner. He puts off the TV at 9pm and goes to bed by 10pm (satkara).
He follows this regularly for 7 days and then starts defaulting . It’s one day on and two days off
(regularity i.e. nairantarya is lost).
Also, after two weeks, he goes back to his old pattern. Therefore, the abhyasa was not long enough
(was not dirgha kale).
So, while it all started with right effort, neither was it regular, nor was it for a long enough time.
It didn’t meet all three criteria of Abhyasa.
2. Proper Abhyasa
Mr Y, on the other hand, realised how his late night TV, Whatsapp messaging or YouTube viewing was interfering with his morning routine of walk, yogasana and breakfast with family before each started their day.
He puts a stop to late night TV, cell plone viewing (satkara), and has continued to do it (nairantarya) without a break, for the last five years (dirghakale).
His abhyasa helped him gain control over his earlier cyclical tendency or vritti.
This is citta vritti nirodhah through abhyasa.
This is Yoga as per Sage Patanjali’s definition.
Abhyasa is not only study, as the term is commonly understood. Sage Patanjali gives it a precise
technical definition in the service of vritti control.
Similarly, Yoga has many connotations. But for Sage Patanjali it is, essentially, Citta vritti nirodhah, i.e. control over the cyclical tendencies of the mind.
One can study each vritti to see how prolonged, regular and correct effort is the only way to control them.
The case Vignette below italicises this.
Case Vignette 4
Mr Y has unstable relationships, high impulsivity, chronic feeling of emptiness, episodes of rage, fear of being abandoned and tendency to self harm, including suicidal behaviour. He is diagnosed withBorderline Personality Disorder (BPD). He meets a psychiatrist and is suggested medication, CBT with regular follow up for a minimum perid of two years.
Although initially reluctant, he follows the advice given. He takes the medicines regularly (nairantarya), for the time period decided, attends CBT and Counselling sessions strictly as per instructions for the duration advised (dirghakale and nairantarya). He puts in the right effort under expert guidance (satkara).
He finds he gains control over the earlier cyclical tendencies that resulted in violent outbursts, poor interpersonal relations and fear of being abandoned or losing touch with reality.
By sustained, continuous practice under expert guidance , i.e. through abhyasa, he gained Citta vritti nirodhah.
He settled to a job, got into a stable relationship, got over angry outbursts and feelings of derealisation.
This resulted in control over his cyclical tendencies.
This is how abhyasa worked for him in achieving citta vritti nirodhah.
The goal of Yoga as per PYS.
The goal of mental health intervention.
The goal of psychiatric treatment coalesced with the goal of Yoga so beautifully in this case.
Vairagya and its role in vritti control i.e. in Citta vritti nirodhah
It is necessary to first understand what is Vairagya acording to Sage Patanjali. Then its absence in the causation of vritties. Then, its presence in their cessation will becone obvious. Illustrative examples will clarify matters further.
The Fifteenth Sutra
Vairagya is the name (sangya) of that state of control (vashikarana) wherein there is non-thirsting
(vaitrishnya, i.e. state of being beyond trishna: trishna meaning thirst) for objects of senses (vishaya), whether seen (drsta) or heard about (anushravika) .
The relevant Sutra is –
दृष्टानुश्रविकविषयवितृष्णस्य वशीकारसञ्ज्ञा वैराग्यम् ॥ १५॥
dṛṣṭānuśravikaviṣayavitṛṣṇasya vaśīkārasañjñā vairāgyam||15|
PYS 1.15
The essential aspects of vairagya are two. First, being Vashikaran i.e. being in perfect control. Second, achieving it by being vitrishna i.e. non-thirsting which can also be understood as non-craving. It is usually for sense objects, but can also be for power, influence, wealth, prosperity, blind attachment to welfare of kith and kin etc. It is what makes even the otherwise knowledgeable lose control over reason and carry out wrong activities again and again, i.e. as a cyclical tendency or vritti.
Trishna as thirst and raag as attachment are the two main reasons for repeated maladaptive coping behaviour in most people.
Some Further Understanding based on Etymology
In the term Vairagya,Vai means beyond, Raag means colour or colouring.
In other words, beyond colouring, or being affected by, vritties that can influence and cause turbulence.
Vairagya doesn’t mean one doesn’t take any colour, but that one is not coloured by it. One basically remain transparent.
One can take on any colour but not become that colour.
One is involved in any activity but not entangled in it.
Vairagya is not lack of desire. Without desire, nothing is possible, not even life. Vairagya is not getting attached to its fruits. It comes from perfect control over the craving (trishna) for anything.
The person in vairagya can be very interested , very engrossed and yet absolutely disentangled.
Interested, but disentangled. That’s what about sums it up.
We will see what this implies when we study vairagya in some eminent personalities .
For our limited purpose, let us see how vairagya as non-craving is useful and works in day to day life. For that, we must see how its absence, i.e. craving causes psychopathology.
Illustrative Examples of How Craving/Attachment or Raag is Pathological
Example 1
Mr L knows he is doing wrong by amassing illegal wealth, indulging in drug trafficking, arms sale to terrorists, encouraging loot and arson. But his thirst for wealth, power and influence in the circles that matter makes him do these activities again and again, in a cyclical manner.
Example 2
Ms M knows her teenage son manipulates her fondness for him (and lack of firmness) by making
repeated unreasonable demands which she is compelled to fulfil so as to buy temporary peace. Till he launches on a fresh course of demands.
Example 3
Ms N is a teenager who craves for the latest fashion wear, the latest cell phone etc., and pressurises her mother to prevail upon her father to provide for them. Otherwise, she throws temper tantrums, refuses to study, stays out late nights and indulges in rave parties.
It is craving for sense objects that makes her do all this. It is craving for peace and unhealthy attachment to the daughter that makes her parents succumb.
And this behaviour is repeated in a cyclical manner.
The key to handling all these issues is overcoming the unreasonable thirst (vaitrishna) for sense objects and gaining control over them (vashikarana) on the part of the teemager. Also, gaining control over the appeasement of petulant behaviour of a rebellious teenager which is another form of unhealthy attachment (raag).
Vairagya involves going beyond unhealthy attachments to take firm actions that prevent one from
carrying out wrong behaviour in a cyclical manner. And being firm about it, not yielding to pressures in the interim, and regardless of threats and emotional black mail. Vairagya also is giving up on the thirst for the unreasonable, the illegal, the unnecessary that often masquerades as a strong need when it’s actually an unreasonable want.
How Does Vairagya Work in Therapy?
A case study wherein a patient gained control over the vritti of memory will demonstrate this.
Ms H suffers from lack of sleep, sadness of mood and frequent crying spells. She also has attacks of giddiness, palpitations and generalised weakness. She has visited numerous specialists until one of them suggests visiting a psychiatrist.On detailed history taking, it is found she was a busy working lady heading an organisation but now retired. Her husband was a busy businessman who could not devote much time for her. Her only son has moved abroad to fulfil his ambition.While she was working, she was very involved in what she did. She had a wide circle of people to
interact with. Being the helpful type, her work and interactions kept her quite occupied.And then retirement happened.Suddenly, there was nothing to do. The husband was caring, but couldn’t devote continuous attention to her. Her son wa abroad and called regularly. But he couldn’t be engaged with her all the time.All her sources of comfort were suddenly gone. Sickness gripped her.She often remembered her subordinates, her earlier colleagues and felt like crying. She missed her only son and lived in the menories of his childhood. Remembering him, she got frequent crying spells.Medication helped her sleep and improved her mood, but slipping into memories and crying spells continued.In psychotherapy, she was helped to realise that people had moved on, circumstance had changed and she needed to move on as well. Attachment to past memories and craving for earlier times was maladaptive.She gradually abandoned her attachment to the past and started living in the present. Rather than being attached to old memories, she created new ones. She developed new hobbies, new circle of friends and started new interactions.Her attachment to and craving for the past, and clinging on to past memories (smriti) disappeared.The crying spells were controlled.This development of non- attachment and giving up craving or thirst for past memories was a form of vairagya in action.It helped her gain control over her maladaptive vritti of smriti or constant remembrance and not
allowing it to pass.This is how vairagya as non craving helped her in citta vritti nirodhah.Doing this regularly (nairantarya), in the correct manner under the guidance of a psychotherapist (satkara) became abhyasa In action.Abhyasa and Vairagya together helped her achieve control over vritti and achieve citta vritti nirodhah.This was posivite mental health. Equally importantly, it also was Yoga in action.Again, an example of the goals of Mental Health and Yoga coalescing.
A Brief Summary of How Abhyasa and Vairagya Work
1.How does abhyasa help?
Abhyasa (sustained effort) helps to understand and practice what is right knowledge (pramana) , to understand and avoid what is wrong knowledge (viparyaya) , to understand and practice helpful imagination (Vikalpa) and avoid its harmful variety, to understand and practice healthy sleep (nidra) habits and shun the unhealthy ones, to understand and practice healthy reminiscencing (memory, smriti) and avoiding its pathological variety.
By understanding and practising all these, an individual can control his cyclical tendencies (vritties) and achieve citta vritti nirodhah .
Mental health intervention techniques can assist the individual in this endeavour.
2. How does Vairagya help?
Vairagya helps by not thirsting for, or clinging on to, enteties that cause psychopathology.
And, as one evolves, to finally reach beyond the thirst for any thing in particular, and, later, anything ingeneral.
But that is in the evolved individuals. For the limited, but important, purpose of Mental Health, it is enough to consider vairagya as non craving or non thirsting.
Right knowledge (pramana) of enteties and phenomena aids the process of overcoming such thirst and craving.
Understanding what is wrong knowledge (viparyaya) helps in identifying what it is and eliminating the craving for its fruits.
Understanding what is imagination (vikalpa) brings in realistic thinking and activity, getting rid of the craving for miracles and miracle workers. Understanding of what sleep (nidra) means removes the craving for either enjoying or limiting it. Rather, it helps use of sleep to maintain and restore health.
Understanding memory (smriti) removes the craving to cling to the past, to thirst for past glories. It helps in remaining determined in the present and working towards a brighter future.
One realises that vairagya as non, and beyond, craving has practical utility not realised if it just remains a lofty unattainable goal.
Sage Patanjali, being scientific and analytical, would, presumably, welcome such an interpreration.
Just also give it a thought.
Isn’t this also the goal in positive mental health?
To get rid of those cravings that result in psychopathology?
We are again and again led to the realisation that the goals of Yoga and Mental Health coalesce at a very fundamental level.
This realisation will be enduring only if artificial barriers by committed proponents on both sides caste aside their blinkers and their tunnel visions.
Elaborating on Vairagya by Citing Some Eminent Personalities and Some Traditions
Vairagya made a Mahatma Gandhi not succumb to his son’s numerous antics to pressurise him. Lack of vairagya made a Dhritarashtra do the opposite. Vairagya made a Nelson Mandela suffer years of incarceration, not thirsting for personal pleasures and preferring jail but not succumbing to the pressures and inducements of a flawed regime.
Here, attachment was what the ordinary manifest as a life of pleasures of day to day life, turning a blind eye to wrong doing by powerful sources. Non-attachment to such pleasures gave a person like Mandela the inner strength to resist undue pressures that influence and subjugate the ordinary day in and day out, compulsively and cyclically.
It is vairagya that motivates the tradition of monks across all cultures. It is vairagya that motivated Gautama Buddha to give up worldly life in search of enlightenment. It is Vairagya that motivated a Lord Krishna to move away from Vrindavan to Mathura, breaking strong emotional bonds. It’s vairagya that makes a shramana of a shravaka, a pracharak in a certain cultural Indian organisation, a celibate nun/priest in a certain religious order. It’s vairagya that made the ‘bawarchi’ from the film with the sane name leave for a new home waiting to be improved.
It is vairagya that makes a current prime minister give up family life and attachments to devote energies to nation building without vritties vitiating the citta.
Vairagya is the force that helps people overcome their unhealthy cyclical tendencies (vritties) and thus achieve citta vritti nirodhah.
At the highest level, of the highest order.
Vairagya is yoga in action.
The Sixteenth Sutra
Having achieved this, ultimate (param) level , pure awareness (purush) can clearly see itself (khyateh) as independent from (vaitrishnyan) the fundamental qualities (gunas) of nature.
The relevant Sutra says
तत्परं पुरुषख्यातेर्गुणवैतृष्ण्यम् ॥ १६॥
tatparaṁ puruṣakhyāterguṇavaitṛṣṇyam||16||
PYS 1.16
In other words, when vairagya is firmly established, one can achieve the higher state of pure awareness and independence even from the forces of the gunas that compel us to cyclical compulsive tendencies or vritties.
Meaning, on knowing the self from within, even the thirst of the gunas is extinguished.
Which means, ultimately, Vairagya is not just giving up on sensual desires but even desires based on the gunas themselves. Sattva, rajas and tamas. Because their existence is the fountain source of
cravings. Even sattva.
This is the highest level of vairagya.
This is also Citta vritti nirodhah achieved through vairagya.
From the Actionable to the Highest
What becomes immediately obvious is that these esoteric and forbidding appearing concepts actually offer actionable models in positive mental health if only we are a bit persistent with discovering them in their various forms.
They also offer the individual the highest possible levels of self-actualisation.
The whole wide spectrum.
Our ancient scriptures offer such possibilities. PYS is a shining example.
From health as absence of disease to health and complete well-being.
Concluding Remarks – Towards Holistic Mental Health Complemented by Yoga
By studying the lives of some eminent personalities as we did earlier, one thing is obvious. Coupled with abhyasa i.e. continuous prolonged and correct practice, vairagya offers the sure way to keep one’s vritties in check and thus become the means of gaining self-control, mastery over unhealthy impulses, and lead a life of integrity with an abiding faith in ethical values that becone guiding principles for a life of purpose and fulfilment.
This too, is the goal of positive mental health at the highest level.
This is as much the goal of Yoga understood as the highest form of citta vritti nirodhah.
Their point of interaction throws open many exciting possibilities for future coordinated effort between mental health specialists and traditional Indian holistic health and healing systems.
This is the challenge that holds great opportunities in collaborative work to achieve the goal of health as physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing and not just the absence of disease or infirmity.
It is equally the goal of positive mental health that, in fact, only italicises this same realisation.
Working over experimental models that corroborate the case vignettes and illustrative examples
described earlier is one task for the future. Working on the neurobiological correlates of Vritties, citta and citta vritti nirodhah is another such task.
The future holds immense possibilities in positive mental health, provided we keep a healthy attitude towards complementary medicine.
We end here, only to begin a new phase of exciting possibilities in the future.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Dr Srinivas Murthy for inviting us to write this initially as book chapter. We also wish to thank Dr Rochana Bharti for helping with the Sanskrit sutras and Dr Anshuman Singh for helping with with logistics.
Conflict of Interest
The authors are Editor and Deputy Editor, Mens Sana Monographs.
References
(Note to references: Patanjali Yoga Sutras do not have a publisher and a publication date. Also, we have only included primary sources here. So, we apologise we cannot follow the standard referencing system used in scientific publications.)
1. Patanjali Yoga Sutras 1.1 (hereafter PYS.) 1.1 means the first chapter’s first sutra
2. PYS 1.2
3. PYS 1.3
4. PYS 1.4
5. PYS 1.5
6. PYS 1.6
7. PYS 1.7
8. PYS 1.8
9. PYS 1.9
10. PYS 1.10
11. PYS 1.11
12. PYS 1.12
13. PYS 1.13
14. PYS 1.14
15. PYS 1.15
16. PYS 1.16